First Word

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Two Hundred Years Together: Russo-Jewish History, vol. 1 (1795-1916)

Chapter 1, To End of 18^th Century, third installment (see contents).

[G23] Judging by its stable manner of life, it was in neighboring Poland that the biggest jewish community emerged, expanded and became strong from the 13^th to the 18^th century. It formed the basis of the future Russian jewry, which became the most important part of World jewry until the 20^th century. Starting in the 16^th century “a significant number of Polish and Czech Jews emigrated” into the Ukraine, White Russia and Lithuania. In the 15^th century jewish merchants traveled still unhindered from the Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom to Moscow. But that changed under Ivan [IV] the Terrible: jewish merchants were forbidden entry. When in 1550 the Polish King Sigismund August desired to permit them free entry into Russia, this was denied by Ivan with these words: “We absolutely do not permit the entry of the Jew into my lands, because we do not wish to see evil in our lands, but rather may God grant that the people in my land may have rest from that irritation. And you, our brother, should not write us on account of the jews again,” for they had “alienated the Russians from [G24] Christianity, brought poisonous plants into our lands and done much evil to our lands.”

According to a legend, Ivan IV [the Terrible], upon the annexation of Polotsk in 1563, ordered all jews to be baptized in response to complaints of Russian residents “against evil things and bullying” by jews, leasers and others empowered by Polish magnates. Those that refused, apparently about 300 persons, are supposed to have been drowned in his presence in the Dvina. But careful historians, as e.g. J. I. Gessen, do not confirm this version even in moderated form and do not mention it once.

Instead of that, Gessen writes that under the False Dimitry I (1605/06) both jews and other foreigners “in relatively large number” were baptized in Moscow. The story goes according to “In the Time of Troubles” [by Sergey Ivanov, regarding the 15-year period 1598-1613 of confusion following the failed Rurik Dynasty] that the False Dimitry II (the “Thief of Tushino”) was “born a Jew.” (The sources give contradictory information regarding the ancestry of “the Thief of Tushino.”)

[Sozhenitsyn relates that after the “Time of Troubles,” jews, like Polish-Lithuanian folk in general had restricted rights in Russia. [G25] There was prohibition of peddling in Moscow, or to travel beyond Moscow at all. But ordinances were contradictory.

[Mikhail Feodorovich (Michael son of Theodore; 1613 became first Romanov chosen as czar) did not pursue a principial policy against Jews.

[Alexis Michaelovitch (Alex son of Michael; czar 1645). No sign of discrimination against jews in the law book; free access granted to all cities including Moscow. During the seizure of Lithuania, as well as later wars, treatment of Jews in captivity was not worse than other foreigners.

[After the Treaty of Andrusovo (1667) (in which Smolensk, Kiev and the whole eastern bank of the Dnieper River remained Russian) jews were invited to stay, and many did. Some converted to Christianity and some of these became heads of noble families. A small number of baptized migrated to a Cossack village on the Don and a dozen Cossack families descended from them. Samuel Collins, an Englishman residing in Moscow at the time, related that “in a short time, the Jews have in a remarkable way spread through the city and court, helped by the mediation of a Jewish surgeon.”

[Feodor III, son of Alexis (Theodore, 1676 czar]. Jews not to be assessed toll on entry to Moscow, because they are not allowed in, whether with or without wares. But the practice did not correspond to the theory.

[In the first year of Peter the Great, doors were opened to talented foreigners, but not jews on account of their being “rogues and deceivers.” Yet there is no evidence of limitations imposed on them, nor special laws. Indeed, jews were found close to the Emperor:

• Vice-chancellor Baron Peter Shafirov
• close confidant Abram Veselovsky, later accused of thieving
• his brother, Isaac Veselovsky
• Anton de Vieira, general police master of Petersburg
• Vivière, head of secret police

and others. To A. Veselovsky, Peter wrote that what matters is competence and decency, not baptism or circumcision.

[Jewish houses in Germany inquired whether Russia would guarantee their commerce with Persia, but never received it.

[At start of 18^th century there was increased jewish trade activity in Little Russia (=Ukraine), [G27] a year before Russian merchants got the right. Hetman (Ukrainian chief) Skoropadski gave order several times for their expulsion but this was not obeyed and jewish presence actually increased.

[Catherine I (1724 Czarina) decreed removal of jews from Ukraine and Russian cities; but only lasted one year.

[Peter II (Czar 1727) permitted jews into Little Russia, first as “temporary visits” on the ground of their usefulness for trade, then, more and more reasons found to make it permanent. Under Anna (1730 Czarina), this right was extended to Smolensk and Slobodsky. In 1734 permission was given to distil brandy, and in 1736 it was permitted to import vodka from Poland into Russia.

[Baltic financier Levy Lipman probably bailed out the future czarina Anna financially while she was living in Courland. [G28] Later, he achieved a high rank in her court in financial administration, and received various monopoly rights.]

Elisabeth [1741 czarina] however issued a Ukase [imperial Russian decree] one year after taking the throne (Dec 1742): “Jews are forbidden to live anywhere in our realm; now it has been made known to us, that these jews still find themselves in our realm and, under various pretexts, especially in Little Russia, they prolong their stay, which is in no way beneficial; but as we must expect only great injuries to our loyal subjects from such haters of the name of our Savior Jesus Christ, [G29] we order: all jews, male and female, along with their entire possession, to be sent without delay from our realm, over the border, and in the future not allowed back in, unless it should be that one of them should confess our Greek-Christian religion.”

This was the same religious intolerance that shook Europe for centuries. The way of thinking of that time was not unique in any special Russian way, nor was it an exclusively jew-hostile attitude. Among Christians the religious intolerance was not practiced with any less cruelty. Thus, the Old Believers, i.e. men of the same orthodox faith, were persecuted with fire and sword.

This Ukase of Elisabeth “was made known throughout the realm. But immediately attempts were made to move the Ruler to relent.” The military chancellor reported to the Senate from the Ukraine that already 140 people were evicted, but that “the prohibition for jews to bring goods in would lead to a reduction in state income.” The Senate reported to the Czarina that “trade had suffered great damage in Little Russia as well as the Baltic provinces by the Ukase of the previous year to not allow jews into the realm, and also the state burse would suffer by the reduction of income from tolls.” The czarina answered with the resolution: “I desire no profit from the enemies of Christ.”

[Sozhenitsyn discusses contradictory sources as to the number of jews that were actually evicted, ranging from almost none, to 35,000, the latter figure having questionable origins; [G30] strong resistance to the edict by jews, land proprietors and the state apparatuses meant it was enforced almost as little as previous attempts had been.

[(G31) Catherine II, Czarin 1762 in consequence of a coup, and also being a neophyte to Orthodoxy herself, was unwilling to start her reign opening things up for jews, though the Senate advised for it. Jews pressed for it and had spokesmen in Petersburg, Riga, and Ukraine. [G32] She found a way around her own law in permitting their entry for colonization into “New Russia” [area between Crimea and Moldavia], which was still a wasteland. Was organized secretly from Riga, and the nationality of the jews was kept more or less secret. Jews went there from Poland and Lithuania.

[In the first Partition of Poland, 1772, Russia reacquired White Russia (Belarus) along with her 100,000 jews.]

After the 11^th century more and more jews came into Poland because princes and later, kings encouraged “all active, industrious people” from western Europe to settle there. Jews actually received special rights, e.g. in 13^th c., from Boleslav the Pious; in 14^th c., from Kasimir the Great; in 16^th c., from Sigismund I and Stephan Bathony; though this sometimes alternated with repression, e.g. in 15^th c., by Vladislav Yagiello and Alexander, son of Kasimir: there were two pogroms in Krakow. In 16^th c several ghettos were constructed partly to protect them. The Roman Catholic spirituals were the most continuous source of a hostile stance. Nevertheless on balance it must have been a favorable environment, since in first half of 16^th c. [G33] the jewish population increased substantially. There was a big role for jews in the business activity of landlords in that they became leasers of the brandy distilling operations.

After the Tater devastation, Kiev in the 14^th c. came under Lithuania and/or Poland, and in this arrangement “more and more jews wandered from Podolia and Volhynia into the Ukraine,” in the regions of Kiev, Poltava, and Chernigov. This process accelerated when a large part of Ukraine came directly under Poland in the Union of Lublin, 1569. The main population consisted of orthodox peasants, who for a long time had had special rights and were free of tolls. Now began an intensive colonization of the Ukraine by the polish Szlachta (Polish nobility) with conjoint action by the jews. “The Cossacks were forced into immobility, and obligated to perform drudgery and pay taxes… The Catholic lords burdened the orthodox peasants with various taxes and service duties, and in this exploitation the jews also partly played a sad role.” They leased from the lords the “propination,” i.e. the right to distil vodka and sell it, as well as other trades. “The jewish leasers, who represented the Polish lord, received – of course only to a certain degree – the power that the landholder had over the peasants; and since the jewish leasers… strove to wring from the peasants a maximum profit, the rage of the peasants rose not only against the Catholic landlords but also against the jewish leasers. When from this situation a bloody uprising of the Cossacks arose in 1648 under leadership of Chmelnitsky, Jews as well as Poles were the victims” – 10,000 jews died.

The jews were lured in by the natural riches of the Ukraine and by polish magnates that were colonizing the land, and thus assumed an important economic role. Since they served the interests of the landlords and the regime… the jews brought on themselves the hatred of the residents.” N. I. Kostomarov adds that the jews leased not only various branches of the privileged industries but even the orthodox churches, gaining the right to levy a fee for baptisms.

After the uprising, the “jews, on the basis of the Treaty of Belaia Tserkov (1651) were again given the right to resettle in the Ukraine… The Jews were like before resident and leaser of the royal industries and the industries of the Szlachta, and so it was to remain.”

“Going into the 18^th c. brandy distilling was practically the main profession of jews.” “This trade often led to conflicts with the peasants, who sometimes were drawn into the taverns not so much because well­-to-do, but on account of their poverty and misery.”

Included among the restrictions placed on the Polish jews in response to demands of the Catholic church was the prohibition against jews having Christian house-servants.

[G34] Because of the recruitment coupled with the state tax increases in neighboring Russia, not a few refugees came to Poland, where they had no rights. In the debates of Catherine’s commission for reworking a new Law code (1767/68), one could hear that in Poland “already a number of Russian refugees are servants to jews.”

(continued)